Clones and cloning

Cloning and parthenogenesis may be somewhat blurry distinctions (especially since SF will create variants of all these technologies). Cloning produces genetically identical offspring, either male or female. It also seems to rely more on deliberate use of technology - - either in each case or to create a genetic change in human reproduction.

This is distinct from parthenogenesis, which may be defined as naturally-occurring female-only reproduction. Clearly, stories which explore these concepts create a lot of "cross-over" ideas, so some works may be listed in both places.

Cloning as a reproductive strategy is intentional: societies use it to combat a mysterious decline in one or the other gender, or the powerful use it to try to eliminate one or the other gender.

• Battlestar Galactica 2004 TV series - Cylon clones
• David Brin. Glory Season - A society largely composed of women and a few men use cloning (with male sperm as an activator) as the major reproductive strategy; with some reproduction of a few individual males and females who are not part of the influential clone families. Impregnation is accomplished with sex and tied to season; during most of the year the sperm activates the egg to reproduce but doesn't contribute any genetic material, resulting in a female clone. During the summer, however, sperm and egg combine to produce a "variant," male or female of mixed genetic heritage.
• Lois McMaster Bujold's later Miles books dealing with his clone brother
• Suzy McKee Charnas Motherlines and The Furies. Charnas' women introduced in Motherlines were genetically altered to reproduce parthenogenetically with starter sperm - which they get from intercourse with horses. The sperm contribute no genetic material but the semen is required to start a pregnancy. The offspring are clones of the mothers, called "motherlines."
• Elizabeth Hand "The Month of Athyr"
• Naomi Mitchison. . Solution Three (Feminist Press, 1975)
• Chris Moriarty, Spin Control
• Pamela Sargent, Cloned Lives
• James Tiptree, Jr., "Houston, Houston, Do You Read?" (female clone lines)
• Manuel van Loggem, 1916-. "Fancyfuck" ("Fraaiparen" in Dutch). From: Paarpoppen (Pairpuppets), Laren, 1976 - translated by the author and reprinted in New Worlds From the Lowlands: Fantasy and Science Fiction of Dutch and Flemish Writers; compiled and edited by Manuel van Loggem; Cross-Cultural Communications, Merrick, New York: 1982. A regimented society in the future consists of clone-lines (male and female) created by the government. Citizens are educated to loathe sex with each other.

• Kate Wilhelm. Where Late the Sweet Birds Sang (1976). Cloning begins as a last-ditch attempt to save the human species as the environment goes wrong, reproductive abilities decline drastically, and society falls apart. The clone society develops in ways that severely restrict individual liberties (and in fact, the formation of individual identity at all), and later generations of clones begin to lose creativity and intelligence.